A political astroturfing campaign aims to appear as an organic expression of public opinion, yet is in fact centrally coordinated and organised by political elites, parties or corporations. Through these campaigns, especially during election periods, these actors seek to influence public opinion, presenting a view or idea, which align with their purposes, as having spread from the grassroots and being supported by the majority of society.

The backfire effect suggest that when falsehood information that is aligned with the beliefs held by individuals is debunked, their belief in this misinformation will be reinforced. According to this theory, individuals are more likely to endorse a misperception about a controversial political or scientific issue when their beliefs or predispositions were challenged.

Bots are automated fake accounts, catalyzing falshood information on social media.

Conspiracy theories are the explanationof the causes of social and political events by alleging secret plots by two or more omnipotent and powerful actors.

Countinued influence effect is a continued use of information in reasoning after it has been debunked. Even when misinformation is verified, people may continue to believe it and it influences their decision-making.

Cyber troops are organisations sponsored by states or political parties. Their mission is to produce disinformation campaigns against opponents or society.

Debunking is a method of tackling to misinformation and disinformation, presenting a corrective statement that establishes that the previously disseminated statement, news or information were misinformation.

The term deepfake, derived from the words deep learning and fake, is used to describe content created by altering and replacing the object in the image or video with another fake one using artificial intelligence tools and techniques.

Disinformation is content that is deliberately false and intended to cause harm and damage to individuals, states or organisations.

Doxing is the disclosure of private information without consent. Doxing is a type of malinformation which private information is publicly shared with the intention of causing harm.

Fake news is defined as false news content disseminated and spread by the both legacy and new digital media organizations. However, the term fake news has been used by politicians to discredit professional journalism

False connection is a type of dis/misinformation that refers to examples which headings, images or visual subtitles do not match the content.

This type of mis/disinformation is used to describe the content that is genuine but has been reframed in different context and present a reproduced narratives.

A filter bubble is a situation driving people to an ideological isolation that may derived from platform algorithms feeding us information we already agree with, based on our ideology and search history.

FIMI is interventions which are mostly non-illegal pattern of behaviour that threatens or has the potential to negatively impact values, procedures and political processes. Such activity is manipulative in character, conducted in an intentional and coordinated manner. Actors of such activity can be state or non-state actors, including their proxies inside and outside of their own territory.

Hate speech is a prejudicial speech that attacks or uses pejorative or discriminatory language aganist spesific group based on their religion, ethnicity, nationality, race, colour, descent, gender or other identity factor.

Hypertexuality is a feature of new media that allows large amounts of information to move freely on social platforms or networks. Users are continuously directed to new tabs and pages through links within the content, “see here”, “click here” buttons, “this may also be of interest to you” headings.

Imposter content refers to the type of dis/misinformation spread by fake accounts on social media or websites that impersonate a person, organisation or news source, using well-known and recognised organisations or journalists’ credentials.

An infodemic is too much information including false or misleading information in digital and physical environments in times of crises. It causes confusion and risk-taking behaviours that can harm health. It also leads to mistrust in health authorities and undermines the public health response.

The illusory truth effect implies that repetition strengthens belief in information. Repeated exposure to misinformation especially in social media platforms may often lead to an increased perception of the veracity of that information, even if the claim contradicts prior knowledge or is not credible.

Malinformation is genuine information, but that is shared with malicious intent to cause harm. It includes private or disclosure information that is disseminated in a way which aims to damage to a person or their reputation.

It is a type of misinformation that refers to the manipulation and alteration of a real information, image or video for the purpose of deception. The editing of real images, cutting videos and sharing a certain part of them are the most common types of manipulation, especially on social media platforms.

Media literacy refers to the ability to develop a critical perspective to analyse and evaluate content people encounter in both old and new media.

Misinformation is false content, but the person sharing it doesn’t realize that it is false.

Motivated reasoning leads to individuals to acquire and process new information they come acroos in biased ways. It is also a process which an individual interprets information in goal-driven manner and makes an effort to arrive at a particular way they already have.

Based on inoculation theory in social psychology, prebunking is a technique for combating misinformation that aims to boost individuals’ resillience to misinformation before exposing to it. By forewarning individuals that may be exposed to misinformation or disinformation, it attempts to create a threat to motivate the protection of existing beliefs.

Propaganda is the dissemination of ideas in a systematic way, regardless of their falsehood or accuracy, for the benefit of a party with a particular interest. The aim is to shape public opinions or people’s behaviours in favour of their interests.

Post-truth refers to circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than emotional appeals.

Selective exposure refers to individuals being prejudiced against information sources that are contrary to and inconsistent with their views and ideologies, driving individuals to follow sources that are consistent with their ideologies.

Social media platform architecture is a techinal structure and protocals of social media platforms that enable, constrain, and shape individual behaviour in the platforms.

If individuals notice that their opinions are unpopular and marginalised in the communities to which they belong, they may refrain from sharing their opinions in order not to be excluded. The spiral of silence is a phenomenon in which individuals refrain from discussing on sensitive issues in environments where there are people with opposite views and, then gradually become silent.

a troll is an account that deliberately shares offensive or provocative content on social media platforms in order to provoke or disrupt. Trolls may spread misinformation as they only aim to hurt spesific groups with the content they share.

A troll factory is an institutionalised and organized group of trolls sponsored by the states or companies, intending to influence political public opinion and decision-making process of society. They produce and spread disinformation around social issues or elections in order to polarize online space.

Verification refers to the detection and verification of misinformation in the information ecosystem. Fact-checking organisations aim to eliminate the spread of misinformation by correcting it.